Disagreement Aid the Pursuit of Knowledge

Disagreement Aid the Pursuit of Knowledge Many people believe that disagreement is simply like a husband and wife arguing with each other about whether the dress makes her look fat. However there is a great deal more to disagreement than just conflict between two people and from understanding the notion of error, truth, mistake and belief and how they cause disagreement to occur or trying to win your claim leads to interesting knowledge. Disagreement can actually aid the way to pursuit the knowledge in the ways of knowing of reason, emotion and sense perception in the areas of knowledge of human and natural science. This essay will show you how disagreement helps to pursue knowledge. Is it certain that disagreement aids the pursuit of knowledge? This following example will show that it does. One disagreement in natural science that has aided us humans to know more about our universe than before came from the dispute between scientists in the Theory of Quantum. In 1905 Albert Einstein stated that Max Plancks theory of the quantum was right and he proved his point by using an experiment with light, which showed that sometimes light acts as a wave. This shocked a lot of scientists because to them it was crazy as saying a rock acts like a wave. Niels Bohr disagrees with this idea because it went against the classical law of physics which applied to every object in that time. This disagreement made Bohr come up with a methodology proving his idea against Einstein by using hydrogen atoms to show that light isnt a wave. The disagreement between the two founders of quantum mechanics caused them to think further to discover more of the truth. Later Bohrs idea of a fix equation for an atom to behavior like particle was disproven by Max Born who building on Einsteins earlier work said that the quantum mechanics could be found by probability. However Einstein spoke strongly against this idea because he believed God does not roll a dice  [1]  and disagreeing with Borns idea of probability which held that everything was made up by chance. Einstein refused to accept quantum indeterminism and sought to demonstrate that the principle of indeterminacy could be violated, suggesting experiments which should permit the accurate determination of incompatible variables.  [2]  Then he came up with the two slip experiment to help prove his theory by using reason. All of this back and forward arguing between scientists gave us the further knowledge of quantum mechanics bringing us closer to the real truth. By using the way of knowing reason, they experimentally proved facts to argue each other and showing way of knowing emotion, their pride made them stand for their point of view on which view of quantum was true. Another example that really shows that disagreement aid the way to pursuit the true knowledge is disagreement between Alice Stewart and other doctor during 1950s in Oxford. Alice Stewart was trying to identify the cause of child cancer which later discovers that it is cause by X-rays during woman is pregnant. From Ted talk by Mergaret Heffernan about this story she stated that, Alices daughter told me that every time Alice went head-to-head with a fellow scientist,  they made her think and think and think again. It show clearly that disagreement between Alice and her fellow scientist help them to understand the true meaning and further information into the research.  [3]   Disagreement aid the way to pursuit the true knowledge because from disagreement over the answer help scientist find more way and perspective to solve the problem. On the other hand this disagreement may not aid the way of pursuit knowledge because of the close mindedness of the people. These people will not find disagreement and aid because from viewing their own result as the real truth which then closed down all possible answer from other people. For example in the past, it is how Catholic Church believing in geocentric and strongly against all other idea of heliocentric, that was claim by Nicolaus Copernicus. From this classic example it shown that Catholic believe in geocentric because they believe that god was born in planet Earth which mean that Earth is definitely the center of the universe. They believe in this theory and even against an idea of heliocentric. Even theory of heliocentric can be proving by an observation of star. As we have seen emotion also can play an important role in finding the truth because being scared to be proven wrong makes some people close the way to develop their idea or refuse to check their assumption so that the real knowledge of truth cant be revealed. From the article Separating The Pseudo From Science by Michael D.Gordin, we get a good idea on disagreement in science between science and pseudoscience. There is not a demarcation between pseudoscience and science because both areas can add to range of human knowledge. As Gordin said If scientist uses some criterion such as peer review to demarcate, so will the fringe. The brighter the light of science-that is, the greater its cultural prestige and authority-the sharper the shadow, and the more the fringe flourishes.  [4]  The pseudoscience on the fringe will expand the size of the knowledge because pseudoscience views and investigate thing from different perception than normal science. We do have to be careful that it is possible that someone who doesnt know anything about science can claim something is scientific and true based on non-empirical evidence which can lead them off the track. We need to justify any claim by peer reviews that scientist do before we can add to our theoretical or concrete knowledge bases. Disagreement in the human science field can be shown in the field of history which country disagreeing with each other to cause the war to happen. For example American civil war was happen from one conflict or one disagreement which is about slavery. Northern of United States claim to free and end the slavery in the country however Southern part wanted to continues with the slavery because it will affect their economic in a bad way if the slavery end. The disagreement led further to cause a war against two sides of United States. From historical point of view we can see that disagreements over time over how a war began help to find the true cause of the war. However the knowledge is not certain because of the perception of the viewer who views one country or bias one more than another. There are no absolute truth behind disagreement in human science because history can be record in hatred which causing the truth to be change. On the other hand it may not help to find the absolute tru th but from using disagreement help to increase and change the way to approach which can help to discover some knowledge behind. For me the most interesting areas where disagreement aids the pursuit of information are in the areas of knowledge of mathematics and human science. Disagreeing with teacher over either answer was correct or not help to pursuit more knowledge on mathematic than normal because from this I can understand more on how to solve the question by looking at why am I wrong or finding prove to show why I am right. There are a lot of formula and way to solve the question so it is certain by discussing with teacher and sharing our different views, he and I can help each other learn that even though the formula or method isnt the same but the answer in the end is the same. In human science there is a lot of disagreement, because human can understand each other behavior more through sense perception and emotion than by scientific evidence. This lack of hard proves easy lead to an argument. From my experience people will start to know each other more and more when they are disagreeing with each other because it is our human nature to control ourselves and present the information in the best possible way. If that isnt their real behavior, the real behavior will be revealed when they are face with strong rapid change of emotion from arguing with other people. On the other hand in some situation arguing with other people will not lead to knowing each other more but lead into destruction of friendship. Disagreement in both human science and natural science can aid the pursuit of knowledge like in the way like Einstein and Bohr arguing to discovered quantum mechanics through the argument between themselves and how historian discover the meaning and the purpose of history by learning about disagreement which led to war between country. However this knowledge that came from disagreement may be not the real truth for everything because my truth and your truth are not same, like each scientists and historians view thing in different point of view. So everyone must freely look at both sides. Disagreement can help the pursuit the knowledge if we have the reason and right emotions to be open minded enough to listen to other people ideas and accepts the fact that they also can be saying the truth from another perception. Disagreement Aid The Pursuit Of Knowledge Disagreement Aid The Pursuit Of Knowledge Disagreement may aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences because disagreement fosters new research to justify rival theories. Openness to allow disagreeing points of view and theories to be presented is important because it challenges scientists and prompts them to justify their points of view through a genuine dialogue. In this essay I will focus on biology and economics then I will try to discuss how ways of knowing are linked to disagreement. I will also endeavor to show how disagreement has helped me in the process of knowledge acquisition. 1858 was the year when Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallaces new theory was published the evolutionary theory that was thoroughly expounded in the famous treatise On the Origin of Species (1859)  [1]  by Ch. Darwin. In contrast to Lamarck, Darwin proposed the concepts of the common descent and the branching tree of life, which means that two totally different species could have a common ancestor. The theorys fundament was the idea of natural selection, and it was based on a variety of evidence from animal husbandry, geology, biogeography, embryology, and morphology. Evolution underlies every aspect of the form and behavior of organisms. We can see a proof of this in the way species behave and adapt as a result of natural selection. The ability to adapt is exhibited in activities such as locating food, keeping away from predators or finding mates. Life forms can also react to selection by working together with each other, by assisting their relatives or entering in a symbios is of shared advantage. In the end, evolution creates new species through separating the familial populations of organisms, forming new groups that are not able to produce a common generation. Today, the contemporary evolutionary theory is accepted by the greater part of scientists. On the other hand, evolution is still a controversial notion for a number of theists. While a number of religions and denominations are prepared to accept the theory of evolution, making it compatible with their beliefs, there are creationists who purport that evolution is opposing the creation myths present in their religions. As the responses towards the Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844 show, the most controversial feature of evolutionary biology is the inference that human beings descend, together with apes, from a common ancestor and that the intellectual and ethical abilities of humans possess the same inherited attributes as those characteristic of animals. In a number of countries, particularly the United States, these strain between science and religion has produced the current conflict between creation and evolution, a religious conflict connected with politics and p ublic education. While scientific areas such as cosmology and geology also clash with a number of interpretations of religious books, evolutionary theory encounters noteworthy antagonism from religious theoreticians and practitioners. The debate over evolution shows how disagreement encourages more detailed research and, as a result, contributes to the pursuit of knowledge. However, it also shows that disagreement is not only about gathering reliable knowledge, but also about the way one undertakes the acquisition of it. Because theism had been a deeply-rooted philosophy for a very long time, people felt some kind of emotional attachment to it. The same, however, can be said about evolutionists. This can be seen from the fact that the supporters of evolution did not reject the theory in light of new controversial findings. In my opinion, the fact that the evolutionists accept evolution as a basic principle is not disputed by the creationists. It is absurd to say that creationists use the beliefs of the evolutionists to show that they doubt evolution. The purpose of quoting the supporters of evolution is to show the disputable issues in the field of evolution, which are being studied. Another example of the role of disagreement in science is exhibited in the field of modern economics, especially when it comes to the long-run equilibrium  [2]  . It is a notion that aggregate demand is equal to long-run aggregate supply. Given that there is disagreement among different economic concepts, we distinguish between Keynesian equilibrium output in the long run and the new classical equilibrium output2. According to new classical economists, economy will always try to achieve a long-run equilibrium at the full employment level of output. Thus, long-run equilibrium is where the aggregate demand curve meets the vertical long-run aggregate supply curve. The effect of any changes in aggregate demand will be only on the price level. In each case the equilibrium level of output is where aggregate demand is equal to long-run aggregate supply. According to the Keynesian economists, however, this equilibrium level of output may be found at different levels. They believe that the economy may be in long-run equilibrium at a level of output below the full employment level of national income. This will be the case if the economy is operating at a level where there is spare capacity. In this view, the equilibrium level of output depends mainly on the level of aggregate demand in economy. In the Keynesian view, aggregate demand can increase in such a way that there is an increase in the level of r eal output, without any resulting increase in the price level. No clear conclusion has yet been made concerning the long-run equilibrium in macroeconomics. Instead of having a weak and formal equilibrium, vigorous disagreement between experts would give the decision-makers the opportunity to come up with meaningful alternatives that inform and enrich discussions. Writing this essay invoked a memory of a disagreement I had with a classmate of mine over GMO (Genetically modified organism). Few months I watched a TV program on CCTV it was an attempt to introduce the advantages of GMF. I know that the problem with genetically modified food is probably the most significant one. But I am quite aware for the fact that there are genetically modified elements in many other products. This program is very interesting and it widens the eyes. The one that I am sure of is cotton. It has brought many discussions all over the world. However, at the same time a friend of mine was convinced by a text in a website called Ten disadvantages of genetically modified food  [3]  . We started doing a lot of research to support our personal argument. Thus disagreement aided our individual pursuit of knowledge. We did not reach a conclusion due to lack of enough reliable information. He asked me: Can you imagine a genetically modified human being- can it be perfect? Sure, we have to be careful as one day we, human beings, can be modified too. A genetically modified human is the logical continuation of this process. And as far as I know, many claim that choosing the genes for your children and improving their genetic material is good as long as we help them avoid diseases. But in my opinion is same of his, once we start doing this, there will be no going back. And one day some science fiction movies will become reality. When scientists aspire to speak in an unified voice, they usually do so in a quite scientific way: they make and launch consensus reports. The idea is to compress the knowledge of many experts into a single point of view that can resolve disputes and help policy-making. But the process of reaching such a consensus often works against these goals, and can challenge the very authority it tries to project. The idea that science best asserts its authority through consensus statements differs from the real process of scientific development. Consensus is good for textbooks; real science makes its progress by increase challenges to the existing state of always-incomplete knowledge. Science would present greater importance to politics if it uttered the broadest set of likely interpretations, possibilities and perspectives, anticipated by the top experts, rather than forcing meeting to a purportedly unified voice. To conclude, a disagreement can often stop you from rushing into dire decisions and choices. They allow you time and give you space to think over it though you may get annoyed by the delay and hindrances. It is always possible you that may have done big homework on a decision, but you still may have left unnoticed a simple, but vital point, which the dissenting person can perceive when looked from a dissimilar viewpoint. Disagreement has fostered the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences such as biology and economics, because disagreement has led to additional research. We should not be afraid to disagree or recognize disagreement. Real leaders accept disagreement as truly successful one must periodically welcome a liberal dose of disagreement in every main or significant decision one takes, even if one is a specialist in what one does.

Companies and the education Essay

It is no denying the fact that globalization is evil, in the real sense of the word, for countries like India, Pakistan and many other developing countries. Globalization is good among the developed countries- like America, Canada, Europe etc. because here the competition is on equal terms. Globalization is also fair among the developing countries, like India, Pakistan etc. But it cannot be said that globalization or competition is fair and on equal terms between developed countries on the one hand and the developing countries on the other hand. It does not make sense that Pakistan will be able to compete on equal level with America. The outcome of this competition can be forecasted easily i. e. all the benefits will definitely go in the pockets of the multinationals of the developed world and the developing ones will suffer greatly in this bargain. It can be said that globalization is a modern method of enslaving the third world countries. In the name of globalization the Western world is dictating the developing countries to open their markets and reduce expenses on social causes, the likes of education and health, while on the other hand the developed countries themselves are subsidizing their farmers, multinational companies and the education. This kind of globalization does not make any sense. But yes it can be called as Westernization. Globalization is the modern face of colonization. In globalization the poor and developing countries are to provide cheap raw materials for the developed world in return for expensive manufactured goods. Thus the developing countries will never be able to produce goods as cheap goods as the all-pervasive multinationals will be producing. They will just provide cheap labor. The supporters of globalization say that globalization has actually decreased the global poverty. They say that no doubt most countries have seen lower income growth but the world’s two largest countries china and India have experienced the opposite. They also say that it is only those countries that increasingly integrate them with the world economy that have managed to grow fastest and reduce poverty the most. Thus it is suggested by them that only those countries who open themselves very much to the world can be benefited in this bargain. Now let us check these arguments of the supporters of the globalization. â€Å"Economists agonize about capital flows but often overlooks the social disruptions, cultural clashes and political changes that globalization brings. † (Mott. 2004. p. 33) It is no doubt that exports and foreign investment played integral role in China’s development. China is able to buy the capital equipments and the other modern tools for its modernization by selling its home-made products in the length and breathe of the world. The managerial and technical expertise of china is also increased by the increase in foreign investment. Now take a close look and we discover that china’s economic policies violated almost all the rules and regulations according to which the supporters of globalization want to play their game. China joined the World Trade Organization only a year or two back and they also did not liberalize their trade policies to a great extent. Their economic policies are the most protected policies in the world. China opens its financial markets to the world just a little time back. Chinese know that the solutions to their problems must be the one suitable to the local conditions. Thus they developed and progress immensely not by following the hard and fast rules of globalization but by will, dedication and nicely built policies suitable to the local environment. On the other hand many countries that open themselves up to the world without taking care of the local demands and conditions suffer financially and functionally. For example, Latin America followed the principles of globalization with great zeal and gusto in the 1990sis suffering from increasing inequality, low economic growth rates, and heightened.

Black Feminism - 2011 Words

Black Feminism â€Å"Feminism in general is a collection of movements and ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for women.† Black Feminism is a strand of feminist thought, which highlights the manifold disadvantages of gender, class and race that shape the experiences of nonwhite women. Black feminist organizations emerged during the 1970s and they had to face manifold difficulties from both the white feminist and Black Nationalist political organizations they were confronting with. Black feminists had rejected the idea of a single unified gender oppression that faced evenly by all women, and argued that early feminist analysis reflected the specific concerns of white,†¦show more content†¦Black women have no personal identity without the male entity, as the words of sisse’s mother when sissie is going to married â€Å"Now our daughter has become a proper lady†. with marriage comes a lot of responsibilities and she is left with no self-identity and have to behave like a Lady and then her mother thinks like a typical mother that she must stop calling her daughter ‘baby’ now because ‘†¦she was a grand old lady of five years’. In her autobiography â€Å"Anne Moody†, brings the idea of black feminism into account, stating, We were told in the same breath to be quiet both for the sake of being ladylike and take us less objectionable in the eyes of white people.† She is deprived of her wants and needs but in this situation as well her mother advises her to ‘remember counting her blessings’. She is having a husband who is legally and fully married to her but most of the time’ she also knows without looking that her husband was not occupying his side of the bed’’. She has no right to ask her husband because she is supposed to handle the households, not to look into the doings of her husband. As it is against the norms of patriarchal society, in which she is living. The depravity of the Black women alsoShow MoreRelatedFeminism As A Black Woman774 Words   |  4 PagesFeminism means something different to every woman. What feminism means to Beyoncà © may be different from what it means to Bell Hooks. 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The German And The American Sociological Traditions

Compare and contrast the German and the American sociological traditions’ answer to: c.) Why do people obey social norms (to the extent that they do)? During our lecture, it was stated, â€Å" The norms we develop for the sake of practice are justified only to the degree that they solve the problems we presently face.† â€Å"If that doesn’t work, we have social reconstruction to make it better.† Within the American, and German sociological traditions, how are norms developed, upon which grounds is a norm considered socially and morally acceptable? Do people obey norms because what they consider a norm makes the society a â€Å"good society†. George Herbert Mead for the American Tradition, believing in adapting, and Max Weber for the German†¦show more content†¦We spoke about Mead’s ideas during our lecture over the American sociological tradition, and what comes to mind is the child burning its finger on a lit candle in another room. When making contact with the flame the child quickly pulled back the finger that had touched the hot flame. By withdrawing his or her hand from the flame due to the heat, the child is responding to the stimuli in its environment, also known as the Stimulus Response Theory. (Lecture) The stimulus of the child touching the hot flame, and withdrawing its hand leads to the Mechanism Stimulus Response Theory. (Lecture) This is because the child socially reconstructs the environment, and what stimulates them due to the pain the child felt from the flame.(Lecture) The way the child now feels about that object is completely different due to the pain. In society we go through stimulants daily, according to the American sociological tradition, these stimulants become our norms. What we believe and what we do not believe. A stimulant can be derived from things like pain, language, significant symbols, and generalized others. For example, my dog is currently laying on my bed, but if she needs to go to the restroom she needs to wake up and go to the door to be let out. She knows this because I trained her using different types of symbols. When she was a puppy, if she used

Nazi Consolidation of Power in 1933 Was Primarily Due to...

It is to an certain extent that Nazi consolidation of power in 1933 was due to the use of terror and violence. However the terror and violence was very limited because the Nazis weren’t in a strong enough position to exert terror and violence alone. Nazi propaganda against the communists made most Germans fearful of Communism therefore allowing Nazis to consolidate a bit more power through means of terror. On the other hand the Nazi party’s policy of legality and the threat of communism are to a large extent the underlining most important factor in explaining how the Nazis were able to destroy political opposition and become dominant and consolidate power in 1933. Legality was a policy where Hitler’s objective was to legally consolidate†¦show more content†¦This is evident as on February 1st 1933 Hitler (through mediums such as the radio) broadcasted his â€Å"Appeal to the German People† and the SA began to attack the enemies of National Socialis m. As a result of this terror and encouraging the use of violence, twenty one days later the police were reinforced with the SA. This was significantly important in the Nazi consolidation of power as it removed threats and made people support the Nazis and Hitler even if the support was drawn out of fear of them being targetted through means of violence and terror, thus increasing support for them. Hitler stressed the issue of the Communist threat which was more important as it meant that more people would oppose them and even go as far as supporting Hitler to effectively legalise violence which their voters believed was needed in order for them to consolidate power and put a stop to the supposed threat. An example of this is that the Reichstag Fire allowed the police to legally arrest suspects without reference to the courts. Another way that the Nazis consolidated their power through violence was at the appointment of 50,000 SA, SS and Stahlhelm members on 22nd February 1933 to cr eate a wave of violence against communists and SPD supporters. There was a failure on the left which weakened the importance of the terror in violence in consolidating power. This is because, the communists and the SPD didn’t believe that the Nazi

Milgram’s Obedience Experiments Free Essays

Abstract This essay comprises a discussion of a classical experiment from the history of psychology, namely Milgram’s obedience experiment. This includes an evaluation of the relevance of Milgram’s findings to the present day. Finally, the evidence presented within the essay is synthesised and conclusions made. We will write a custom essay sample on Milgram’s Obedience Experiments or any similar topic only for you Order Now In particular, it is concluded that despite the moral and ethical implications of these studies, there is a clear need to learn about obedience to authority. Not only can classical experiments such as those conducted by Milgram assist in understanding human behaviour, but they can also assist in a number of environmental contexts, including schools and the military. The aim of this essay is to discuss a classical experiment from the history of psychology, namely Milgram’s obedience experiment. This will be followed by an evaluation of the relevance of Milgram’s findings in the present day. Finally, the evidence presented within the essay will be synthesised and conclusions made. Introducing Milgram’s Experiment One of the most famous psychology experiments ever documented is that of Milgram’s (1974) study of obedience to authority. The study involved deceiving participants into thinking they were giving electric shocks to another participant in an adjacent room. The study was disguised as being one on learning and memory, with the participant supposedly delivering the shock being the ‘teacher’ and the person supposedly receiving the shock being the ‘learner.’ Shocks were administered each time the learner answered incorrectly, with volts (v) progressively escalating from 15v (‘slight shock’) to 450v (‘danger: sever shock’) in increments of 15v. No shocks were actually delivered and the learner was an actor. The experimenter, wearing a white laboratory coat to exert authority, was in the same room as the participant (or teacher) and prompted them to continue delivering shocks despite any pleas from the learner. These pleas started at 150v. Of particular note is that the participant met the learner before the experiment and saw him being strapped into the chair where the shocks would be delivered to him. The teacher also heard the learner complain of a bad heart. It was found that the teachers only refused to stop administering shocks once they reached 368 volts, and 65% of teachers administered the ‘lethal’ shock. Even in variations of this study, an overwhelming majority of teachers continued administering shocks after they thought the student may be injured or unconscious. Milgram’s study gained its notoriety due to the many ethical and moral dilemmas it raises, which subsequently resulted in new ethical guidelines that prevented a replication of the study. That was until 2009, when Burger claimed to have replicated Milgram’s work. Indeed, Burger claims to have replicated the study in all ways except for study duration. Specifically, the study was stopped after the 150v decision to continue or not continue after hearing the learner’s pleas. The rationale provided for this variation in the replication is that, in Milgram’s study, 79% of participants who continued past 150v continued to the 450v. Thus, Burger proposed that stopping the experiment at 150v would still provide insight into how likely people were to go on to 450v should this have been expected of them. This is supported by a meta-analysis of eight of Milgram’s conditions, which shows that 150v was the point that elicited the most disobedience (Packer, 2008). Another aspect of Burger’s (2009) replication of Milgram’s experiment was to establish if participants who had witnessed another ‘teacher’ or ‘confederate’ (who was actually an actor) refusing to continue, would be more likely to refuse to continue themselves. Therefore, on certain issues, Burger went to great lengths to produce an accurate replication of Milgram’s experiments. In replicating the confederate condition, Burger predicted that this would have an effect on obedience levels, but this was not found to be the case. In fact, this variation in the experiment had no effect on obedience levels. This was a markedly different result to that recorded by Milgram, who found that 7.5% of the participants withdrew from the experiment when they witnessed the confederate doing so. When there were three teachers, comprising two actors who withdrew from the experiment, 30% of the participants also refused. This left just 10% of participan ts prepared to see the experiment through to the end. Not only were Burger’s (2009) findings in contrast to those of Milgram, but the interpretation of results is also limited in that Burger only examined the use of one as opposed two confederates. This is a significant weakness considering the wealth of evidence demonstrating the role of conformity on attitudes and behaviours (Hogg and Vaughan, 2011). The Relevance of Milgram’s Work Today Milgram’s study has a great deal of relevance today, most notably in terms of demonstrating how soldiers might react to orders during war. Even though the Milgram obedience study is considered unethical and not a good representation of obedience (Banyard, 2010), many consider his study to be a true and uninhibited study of obedience. Indeed, his findings demonstrate that if an individual in a position of power guides another individual to commit an unethical act, the person being guided is capable of behaving in ways they would not otherwise contemplate. Furthermore, carrying out evil acts is not necessarily dependent on an individual’s character, but the situations they find themselves in. In fact, Milgram’s conclusion was that â€Å"a substantial proportion of people do what they are told to do, irrespective of the content of the act and without limitations of conscience, so long as they perceive that the command comes from a legitimate authority† (Mi lgram 1974, p. 189). This has profound implications in the military, among many other contexts. The key insight gained from social psychology and, in particular, from Milgram’s experiments, is the importance of social influence on obedience. Indeed, Milgram’s work has been supported by other researchers. Berkowitz and LePage (1967) demonstrated in a study comprising students who were given electric shocks as task feedback, that more shocks were associated with more anger. In turn, angered participants gave more shocks and the aggressive cue of a gun increased the number of shocks students were willing to give. This highlights the potentially dangerous outcomes inherent within obedience to authority, providing the rationale for understanding this phenomenon as much as research allows. Conclusion In conclusion, this critique has provided insight into a classical experiment from the history of psychology, as conducted by Milgram and later replicated by Burger. Despite the moral and ethical implications of these studies, there is a clear need to learn about obedience to authority due to its relevance within today’s society. Not only can classical experiments such as those conducted by Milgram assist in understanding human behaviour, but the can also assist in a number of environmental contexts, including schools and the military. References Banyard, P. (2010) Chapter 2: Just following ordersIn N. Brace and J. Byford, Discovering Psychology, The Open University:Milton Keynes, pp. 61-96. 2.Berkowitz, L. and LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 202-207. 3.Burger, J. M. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey todayAmerican Psychologist, 64, 1-11. Hogg, M. A. and Vaughan, G. M. (2011). Social psychology (6th ed.). Harlow: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority.London: Tavistock. Packer, D. J. (2008). Identifying systematic disobedience in Milgram’s obedience experiments: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 301-304. How to cite Milgram’s Obedience Experiments, Essay examples

Critical Think and Creativity free essay sample

Critical Thinking Creativity 1 CRITICAL THINKING AND CREATIVITY AN OVERVIEW AND COMPARISON OF THE THEORIES by Jean Marrapodi A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements of ED7590 Critical Thinking and Adult Education December 2003 Address: City, State, Zip: Phone: E- mail: Instructor: Mentor: 96 Ravenswood Avenue Providence, RI 02908 (401) 453-5972 [emailprotected] com Dr. Marsha Covington Dr. Barbara Salice Critical Thinking Creativity Table of Contents 2 Introduction. 3 Initial Research Impressions .. 4 Research Findings 4 Research on Critical Thinking Research on Creative Thinking.. 8 Research Mentioning Both Critical and Creative Thinking . 18 Observations about the Research and Conclusions . 23 References . 24 Critical Thinking Creativity Introduction In Developing Critical Thinkers, p. 114-118, Stephen Brookfield cites a variety of researchers’ main thinking on creativity, positing that creative thinking is one aspect of the development of critical thinking. (Brookfield, 1987) What are the commonalities between critical thinking and creative thinking? To me, the two appear to be in opposition to one another, since critical thinking is about evaluation of ideas and creative thinking is about expansion of ideas. I have always been known as a creative person, so this topic intrigues me. I have read several books in the popular psychology world about creativity, including works by von Oeck, deBono, Gelb, and Buzan. I have looked at materials designed to expand creativity in individuals, and was even asked to review a book on creativity for T+D magazine, ASTD’s flagship journal. When these two topics were juxtaposed, it sent me on a search for additional information. Interestingly, one of the techniques of creative thinking is to juxtapose unrelated topics to see what evolves from matching them. I am not the only one to have done this with creativity and critical thinking, and much of the literature I found matching the two is for K-12 teachers, because the teaching of these two concepts and practices is being strongly advocated in many public schools. In this paper, I plan to review some of the scholarly literature about creativity and critical thinking, looking for commonalities between them. I also plan to compare the public trade books about creative thinking and explore how that thinking aligns with the research. Finally, I would like to explore if the relationships between them can strengthen my creative and critical thinking abilities. Critical Thinking Creativity 4 Initial Research Impressions The literature is quite comprehensive on critical thinking and creative thinking. There is very little agreement among authors on definitions of what they are, and most of the scholarly research is comprised of quoting one another. There is research in academia, psychology and business covering each topic with strong opinions and recommendations. Research Findings Research on Critical Thinking In exploring the initial research on critical thinking, there are quite a variety of opinions defining it. In our text, Brookfield (1987) defines five aspects and four components of critical thinking (p. 5-9): Aspects of critical thinking: 1. Critical thinking is a productive and positive activity. 2. Critical thinking is a process, not an outcome. 3. Manifestations of critical thinking vary according to the contexts in which it occurs. 4. Critical thinking is triggered by positive as well as negative events. 5. Critical thinking is emotive as well as rational. Components of critical thinking: 1. Identifying and challenging assumptions is central to critical thinking. 2. Challenging the importance of context is crucial to critical thinking. 3. Critical thinkers try to imagine and explore alternatives. 4. Imagining and exploring alternatives leads to reflective skepticism. Critical Thinking Creativity W. Huitt, on Educational Psychology Interactive (Huitt 1994) provides a wonderful summary of the changing definitions: â€Å"The definition of critical thinking has changed somewhat over the past decade. Originally the dominion of cognitive psychologists and philosophers, behaviorally-oriented psychologists and content specialists have recently joined the discussion. The following are some examples of attempts to define critical thinking: †¢ 5 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the ability to analyze facts, generate and organize ideas, defend opinions, make comparisons, draw inferences, evaluate arguments and solve problems (Chance,1986, p. 6); a way of reasoning that demands adequate support for ones beliefs and an unwillingness to be persuaded unless support is forthcoming (Tama, 1989, p. 4); involving analytical thinking for the purpose of evaluating what is read (Hickey, 1990, p. 175); a conscious and deliberate process which is used to interpret or evalua te information and experiences with a set of reflective attitudes and abilities that guide thoughtful beliefs and actions (Mertes,1991, p. 24); active, systematic process of understanding and evaluating a rguments. An argument provides an assertion about the properties of some object or the relationship between two or more objects and evidence to support or refute the assertion. Critical thinkers acknowledge that there is no single correct way to understand and evaluate arguments and that all attempts are not necessarily successful (Mayer Goodchild, 1990, p. 4); the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action (Scriven Paul, 1992); reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do (Ennis, 1992). Huitt also explores the perceptions of the various disciplines’ impact on critical thinking by looking at the influences of cognitive and behavioral psychologists, philosophers, and content specialists. Each processes the concept through a very specific lens. Peter Faccione (1998) introduces a five-step process of critical thinking: interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference skills, presenting arguments, and reflection that may be used in the critical analysis process. His paper also quotes an â€Å"expert consensus statement regarding Critical Thinking Creativity critical thinking and the ideal critical thinker† (Fig. 1) created by a two year long research 6 Figure 1 panel’s work sponsored the American Philosophical Association in 1990. The following table summarizes what these concepts mean to this group. Critical Thinking Creativity Expert Consensus Panel Definitions 7 Interpretation â€Å"to comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures or criteria. Analysis â€Å"to identify the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions or other forms of representation intended to express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information or opinions† Evaluation â€Å"to assess the credibility of statements or other representations which are accounts or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgment, be lief, or opinion; and to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions or other forms of representation. Inference â€Å"to identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to educe the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation. † Explanation â€Å"to state the results of one’s reasoning; to justify that reasoning in terms of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, and contextual considerations upon which one’s results were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of cogent arguments. Critical thinking therefore requires the understanding of a broad knowledge base, the ability to identify inferential relationships, examining the credibility of the statements, the search for elements to draw conclusions, and the ability to explain the reasoning to get to this point. This analysis process is quite different from the other literature that had more parallels to creative thinking processes. Brookfield advocates a process of a critical thinker’s examination of information looking at the epistemological, experiential, communicative and political perspectives of the source information. This is somewhat similar to deBono’s Six Hat process mentioned later, but with a different end product. It appears that the process literature and the definition literature about critical thinking focus on different angles. While the defining literature has numerous similarities, the processes are quite different. Critical Thinking Creativity Research on Creative Thinking The research on creative thinking largely deals with the individual and how the creative process works. There are some articles about corporate creativity in particular, a fascinating one by Keith Sawyer (Sawyer 1999) that explores group creativity involved in improvisational 8 theater. Many of the articles deal with application of creativity in the workplace, and the removal of the barriers that constrain individuals from being creativity. There are many models presented, involving convergent/divergent thinking, the four P’s: a process, a product, a person and a press (Rhodes and Brown, quoted by Feldhusen and Goh, 1995), deBono’s Lateral thinking, etc. One of the common themes is letting go of the restrictions that define what is â€Å"right† and postulating numerous hypotheses. â€Å"Everyone knows that instant judgment is the enemy of creativity,† (de Bono, 1995) It isn’t necessarily that all judgment is wrong; it’s allowing the ideas to emerge without screening them out. It is repeatedly mentioned that there is a need for a quantity of ideas for a good one to emerge. Like critical thinking, creativity is viewed as a process rather than a product, and within the variety of theories, one defined creativity as needing to have an expert determine if something is creative, nd another just holding the process as the creative portion. It is generally measured by creative output, relying on the assumption that â€Å"those with higher creative potential have higher creative output†¦[or] mastery of the discipline†¦[relying] on the observation that creativity tends to be domain-specific—that is , most highly creative people are creative only within a single discipline. † (Smith, Paradice et al. , 2000) Creativity is defined as something different from intelligence, (Michalko, 1998). Creativity is often defined as a parallel construct to intelligence, but it differs from intelligence in that it is not restricted to cognitive or intellectual functioning or behavior. Instead, it is Critical Thinking Creativity concerned with a complex mix of motivational conditions, personality factors, environmental conditions, chance factors, and even products. † (Feldhusen and Goh, 1995) It is different from innovation, since 9 innovation is ‘ideas to action’—taking something that seems to be a good or even exceptional idea and transforming it into something that it tangible for others to use. Innovation is an active process that has a clearly defined end or goal and that produces something that others can use and indeed want! †¦The goal, if not drive, of creativity is to explore beyond current reality, to realize something new. On the other hand, the goal of innovation is to bring those novel ideas into a tangible form that in some way conforms to what others need in the here and now. Creativity is essentially a divergent activity, expanding beyond current experience, while innovation is essentially a convergent activity, bringing those same ideas back into people’s experience†¦creativity is an aspect of innovation;†¦the goal of creativity is exploration and invention. The goal of innovation is transformation and implementation. † (Richards, 2003) Interestingly, innovation is called a convergent activity here. That concept is usually associated with critical thinking. Perhaps innovation is the connecting piece between the two. Innovators like Joyce Wyckoff of thinksmart. om consider creativity to be a component of innovation. Many of the concepts found in creative thinking literature are included in her model of Innovation DNA (Wycoff 2002). (Figure 2) She considers creativity to be â€Å"a natural ability of every person, [and] the skill of developing a lot of ideas and connecting diverse concepts can be enhanced through training and exerc ise. It is up to the leadership to provide the direction and stimuli to spur creativity. † She names nine components of personal innovation. Several of these overlap with steps involved in the critical thinking process, indicated with an asterisk (*): A. Commit to the exploration and development of new possibilities †¢ Look for â€Å"a better way† and challenge the conventional approaches and answers. * †¢ Embrace change and actively explore uncharted territory. †¢ Facilitate development of stimulating challenges that energize and engage. †¢ Embrace diversity as a vital source of new perspectives possibilities. B. Seek out new connections between unrelated concepts * †¢ Regularly read the world for new trends, technologies, ideas and information. Critical Thinking Creativity †¢ †¢ †¢ 10 Understand thinking styles and think with whole brain and all senses. Remain open minded and search for opposites, anomalies and outliers. * Find or create new combinations and synergies. C. Commit to the creation of customer value †¢ Understand customer needs, goals and paradigms. †¢ Understand the strategic context and aim for win-win. †¢ Strive to elegantly deliver more with less. D. I ntegrate the specific business strategy with the process of innovation †¢ Understand the current art, science and language of the business area. †¢ Know the background and context well enough to recognize ideas that are innovations. †¢ Master the basic tools and methods in the area of exploration and idea generation. Understand the system of innovation and allows time for each step of the process. E. Build alignment around new possibilities †¢ Paint the WOW! picture of the future. †¢ Relate new ideas to existing business strategies and objectives. †¢ Speak to the styles and concerns of each stakeholder. †¢ Honor ideas regardless of origin. F. Cultivate collaborative relationships intentionally †¢ Build trust implicitly and explicitly, removing fear wherever possible. †¢ Respect rights and opinions of others. †¢ Express appreciation and honest concerns. †¢ Value the intent and context of collaborative relationships, inside and ou tside the organization G. Embrace and manage appropriate risk taking †¢ Take calculated and appropriate risks to advance ideas. †¢ Able to predict and track existing and emerging risks. * †¢ Communicate risks appropriately. * H. Effectively ma nage innovation projects †¢ Employ tools, processes and techniques flexibly and effectively. †¢ Honor and manage requests, offers and promises. †¢ Focus on the germane issues and juggles priorities. †¢ Scan the business climate to optimize timing for actions. †¢ Establish sound evaluation criteria to guide effective decision- making. * †¢ Elicit the agreement of â€Å"done. Critical Thinking Creativity 11 Figure 2 Critical Thinking Creativity 12 Creativity is something that â€Å"deviates from past experiences and procedures,† (Michalko 2000). â€Å"Creativity usually has been defined as the production of novel ideas that are useful and appropriate to the situation (Amabile, 1983; Mumford Gustafson, 1988, as quote d in Unsworth, 2001). Leonard and Swap believe â€Å"the creative process†¦consists of 1) preparation, 2) innovation opportunity, 3) divergence or the generation of options, 4) incubation, and 5) convergence or the selection of options. (Kelly 2000) Here we combine divergence, convergence and innovation all under the creative umbrella. Some speak of creativity as the process of discovery. It is more than cognitive functioning. Albert (1990, as quoted in Feldhusen and Goh, 1995) proposes six guiding ideas to â€Å"grasp the essence of creativity. † 1. Creativity is expressed through decisions, not products. 2. Knowledge of self and of one’s world is the medium of creative behavior. 3. Creative behavior is highly intentional. 4. Creativeness and personal identity are emergent. 5. 3 and #4 are mutually dependent. 6. Creative behavior engages individuals at the personal level of their identities and abilities. Feldhusen and Goh quote several other popular definitions : â€Å"MacKinnon (1962): [Creativity] involves a response of an idea that is novel or at the very least statistically infrequent. But novelty or originality of thought or action, while a necessary aspect of creativity, is not sufficient. If a response is to lay claim to being part of the creative process, it must to some extent be adaptive to, or of, reality. It must serve to solve a problem, fit a situation, or accomplish some recognizable goal. And thirdly, true creativeness involves sustaining of the original insight, an evaluation and elaboration of it, a developing of it to the full. Creativity, from this point of view, is a process extended in time and characterized by originality, adaptiveness, and realization. † Critical Thinking Creativity 13 â€Å"Czikszentimihaly (1990) theorized that the focus of creativity is in social systems and in making judgments about individuals†¦. Creativity is an interaction among a domain, a person, and a field†¦. it is a process that occurs outside the person who is creative. † â€Å"Amabile (1990) [sees creativity as a five stage process. Stage One] conceptua lizes the external input as an incoming stimulus but also sees the initial impetus as coming from within the individual. Stage 2†¦acknowledges the role of information or knowledge input. Creative processing then involves memory and environment search, response generation (Stage 3), and response evaluation (Stage 4). The culmination in Stage 5 is success, failure, or partial success. Influencing the whole creative process are task motivation, domain-relevant skills, and creativity-relevant or processing skills. † â€Å"Brown (1989) sees creativity as an unconscious process, but as an aspect or component of more complex behavior such as problem solving†¦emphasizing the role of problem finding as an element of creative behavior, as well as the possible fole of change factors in creativity†¦. Chance may favor the well prepared and the very active mind. Feldhusen (2002) himself makes a very interesting observation that creativity has much to do with the person’s existing knowledge base, especially within children. Torrence’s model of fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration requires a significant kno wledge store in order to retrieve and elaborate on new ideas. In this early work (1947) creative people were accelerated in school, had a large knowledge base, and were â€Å"characterized by ability to stick with a task for a long time. † Feldhusen speaks of the large knowledge base assisting in the divergent thinking processes of idea generation. According to Smith, et al (2000) there are three categories of knowledge essential to â€Å"prepare the mind for creative endeavors: 1) Knowledge of the domain in which one intends to create, 2) knowledge of techniques that enhance creativity and factors that inhibit creative efforts, and 3) knowledge of other domains†¦[K]nowledge of other domains provides the material needed for construction useful analogies and.. one domain may have a solution that can be adapted and reused in another. † Mnemonics like Alex Osborne’s SCAMPER (Michalko 2000) representing †¢ Substitute? Critical Thinking Creativity †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Combine? Adapt? Modify, magnify or add? Put to other uses? Eliminate? Rearrange or reverse? 14 are common in the literature, providing a process for the individual to utilize to become creative. Tactics like reversals break existing patterns, â€Å"destabilize conventional thinking patterns and free new ideas. † There are suggestions to not think about something and let the subconscious process the information, and to use the ridiculous to spur on new ideas. (Michalko 2000) Writers explore the thinking of geniuses, in hopes that the reader might emulate some of their patterns. Howard Gardner began his explorations in to multiple intelligences by examining the thinking of geniuses. Michalko (1998) lists the thinking patterns of geniuses as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Geniuses look at problems in many different ways Geniuses make their thought visible Geniuses produce many ideas Geniuses make novel combinations Geniuses force relationships Geniuses think in opposites Geniuses think metaphorically Geniuses prepare themselves for chance Not surprisingly, these patterns parallel many of the creative ideas and methods in the literature. There are numerous books in the business and self help sections in bookstores and libraries on increasing creativity. Books like Chic Thompson’s What a Great Idea! (Thompson 1992) include formulas and exercises to encourage freedom from old ideas, expression of new ideas, learning to create by changing perspectives, thinking in opposites, metaphors, future tense, then taking action to use the ideas. According to Smith, Paradice et al. (2000) there are four behaviors that prepare the mind for creativity: 1) learn something new every day, 2) seek out Critical Thinking Creativity constructive criticism, 3) incubate, or leave a problem alone for a while to allow the brain to work on it, and 4) put knowledge to work. 15 Sometimes creativity is about letting go of existing ideas to come up with something new. According to Dee Hock, founder of Visa The problem is never how to get new, innovative thoughts into your mind, but how to get old ones out. Roger von Oech, in A Whack on the Side of the Head, lists mental blocks that stifle creativity: Finding the right answer, requiring something to be logical, following the rules, always being practical, and assuming play is frivolous. These are all about letting go of pre-existing ideas to allow for the creative ones. Thomas (1999) is one of the many who lists barriers to creativity. His list is based on the work of Alexander Hiam, and lists nine: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Failure to ask questions Failure to record ideas Failure to revisit ideas Failure to express ideas Failure to think in new ways Failure to wish for more Failure to try being creative Failure to keep trying Failure to tolerate creative behavior Most authors in this vein believe removing the obstacles to creativity fosters it. Sometimes creativity is about exploring things from new perspectives. Edward deBono teaches what he calls Lateral Thinking Skills (de Bono 1995). One of his methods, the Six Thinking Hats, involves putting on a different â€Å"hat† to look at ideas. He color codes his hats: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ White—facts figures, information, asking questions, defining information needs and gaps Red—intuition, feeling and emotions Yellow—logical positive, why it will work and offer benefits Black—logical negative, includes judgment and caution Critical Thinking Creativity †¢ †¢ 6 Green—creativity, alternatives, proposals, what is interesting, provocations, and changes Blue—overview or process control Using deBono’s system, ideas are explored from a variety of angles. DeBono’s other concepts of lateral thinking are designed to circumvent the brain’s natural patterns and tendencies. He also created the concept of PO, or provocation operation, which is designed to break out of existing patterns. There is a deliberate sense of looking at opposites, or reversals, or exaggerations to explore concepts from a different angle. One other method deBono uses is to introduce a random word into the discussion. Mixing in an unrelated concept causes the brain to think in a different direction and come up with new links, combining previously unrelated ideas to form new ones. While creativity is largely viewed as an individual process, there is also literature on organizational creativity, and what it takes to promote creativity within organizations. Constantine Andriopoulos (2001) of the Hunter Centre for Entrepreneurship hosted in the University of Strathclyde in the United Kingdom looks at creativity from an organizational viewpoint. Similar to some of the writings on learning organizations in the United States, he posits that there are five organizational factors that enhance creativity in a work environment. First, the organizational climate requires â€Å"participation and freedom of expression, but demands performance standards† and must be â€Å"open climates† where there is interaction with small barriers, a large number of stimuli, freedom to experiment, and the possibility of building on earlier ideals. † Secondly, the leadership style must be democratic and participative. Thirdly, the organizational culture must be â€Å"innovative (divergent and learning) and supportive (empowering and caring† as opposed to controlling and directive. There must be an open flow of communication, and the culture must encourage and support risk-taking, as well as self- initiated Critical Thinking Creativity 17 activity. The culture must be â€Å"stimulating and ensuring participative safety†¦employees can only be encouraged to think creatively if they are not afraid of criticism and punishment. † The organization must work to attract creative talent with the resources and skills in place, them work to develop those talents. Finally, the structure and systems of the entire organization must support creativity. These factors are in alignment with the types of activities that creative people take, and putting them in place in an organization would encourage creativity by its employees. Gareth Lewis, as quoted in Human Resource Management International Digest (2002) states, â€Å"Although people are clearly naturally creative in the ways they approach the world around them, this aspect of human behavior has not always been encouraged or acknowledged by organizations in which people work. Like critical thinking, creative thinking must be fostered to develop. â€Å"Creativity and innovation are the life’s blood or organizations in the information age. [It is a myth] that creative output depend[s] on the inspirations of a few, often flamboyantly different individuals†¦. it is a process in which both groups and individuals play important roles. Regardless of the size of the organization, the creat ive process is essentially the same. It consists of 1) preparation, 2) innovation opportunity, 3) divergence or the generation of options, 4) incubation, and 5) convergence or the selection of options†¦Managers can shape the creative process, design the group composition, enhance the physical environment, provide the tools and techniques to move things along, and lead the creative change†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kelly 2000) Mauzy and Harriman (2003) review three climates for creativity. â€Å"Groups, like individuals, perform more creatively when intrinsically motivated. Climates conducive to creativity nurture the individuality at the heart of intrinsic motivation. They provide the safety necessary for curiosity to flourish. They provide support and patience for successful evaluation. They expect newness. † Looking at Hallmark, Hewlett-Packard and NetGenesis, they found Critical Thinking Creativity significant differences in the way these were individually established, but similarities in the 18 creation of a specific climate to foster and hire creativity, collaboration, open feedback, and the acknowledgement and rewarding of creative moments. Research Mentioning Both Critical and Creative Thinking In most of the education-oriented material, the definitions are highly watered down. Bloom’s Taxonomy is often referenced, using the higher level thinking skills to connect to critical and creative thinking. â€Å"Critical thinking involves logical thinking and reasoning†¦creative thinking involves creating something new or original†¦While critical thinking can be thought of as more left-brain and creative thinking more right brain, they both involve â€Å"thinking. When we talk about HOTS â€Å"higher-order thinking skills† were concentrating on the top three levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy: analysis, synthesis and evaluation. † (Lamb 2003) Huitt equates evaluation with critical thinking and synthesis with creative thinking: â€Å"Synthesis and evaluation are two types of thinking that have much in common (the first four levels of Blooms taxonomy), but are quite different in purpose. Evaluatio n (which might be considered equivalent to critical thinking as used in this document) focuses on making an assessment or judgment based on an analysis of a statement or proposition. Synthesis (which might be considered more equivalent to creative thinking) requires an individual to look at parts and relationships (analysis) and then to put these together in a new and original way. There is some evidence to suggest that this equivalent-but-different relationship between critical/evaluative and creative/synthesis thinking is appropriate. Huitt (1992) classified techniques used in problem-solving and decision-making into two groups roughly corresponding to the critical/creative dichotomy. One set of techniques tended to be more linear and serial, more structured, more rational and analytical, and more goal-oriented; these techniques are often taught as part of critical thinking exercises. The second set of techniques tended to be more holistic and parallel, more emotional and intuitive, more creative, more visual, and more tactual/kinesthetic; these techniques are more often taught as part of creative thinking exercises. This distinction also corresponds to what is sometimes referred to as left brain thinking (analytic, serial, logical, objective) as Critical Thinking Creativity compared to right brain thinking (global, parallel, emotional, subjective) (Springer Deutsch, 1993). † (Huitt 1994) 19 The Saskatchewan School board defines both creative and critical thinking as â€Å"qualities of good thinking processes and as types of thinking. Creative thinking is generally considered to be involved with the creation or generation of ideas, processes, experiences or objects; critical thinking is concerned with their evaluation. † They are â€Å"interrelated and complementary aspects of thinking. (Saskatchawan Education 2003) There are several models that exist that work to develop critical and creative thinking in schools. Calvin Taylor, in the Talents Unlimited program (Bellis) describes the talent areas as productive thinking, communication, planning, decision making and forecasting. Productive Thinking is the process of thinking of many, varied, unusual ideas, then adding to them. Communication works with â€Å"man y varied single words† describing things and feelings, then making a network of ideas and thoughts, and sharing these with others. Planning has the students think through the materials they would need, the steps to take, and the anticipation of problems. The next phase, Decision Making teaches the student to think about a variety of things that could be done (the creative aspect of generating many solutions), then thinking carefully about alternatives and choosing one, then defending the choice. Forecasting has the students making varied predictions about situations and exploring the cause and effect relationships. These steps are used when a child invents something. Bellis also writes about Scott Isaksen and Donald Treffinger’s creative problem solving model. Their basic course has six stages: mess finding, data finding, problem finding, idea finding, solution finding and acceptance finding. According to them, Critical Thinking Creativity â€Å"Creative thinking is described as: †¢ making and communicating connections to think of many possibilities; †¢ think and experience in various ways and use different points of view; †¢ think of new and unusual possibilities; and †¢ guide in generating and selecting alternatives. Critical thinking is described as: †¢ analyzing and developing possibilities to compare and contrast many ideas †¢ improve and refine ideas †¢ make effective decisions and judgments, and †¢ provide a sound foundation for effective action. † 20 Once again, we have a model of divergent thinking to create, and convergent thinking to decide. Helgeson (1993) suggests that there are three ingredients to teaching critical and creative thinking to children through the content areas: using relevant, real world issues; providing structure to solve problems and organize information, and a nurturing classroom environment. This thinking parallels many of the suggestions mentioned in article on fostering creativity in the workplace. The environment must be supportive of the process. In the corporate sector, Brown and Duguid (2001) discuss the tension that must exist between creativity and structure in order for an organization to survive. â€Å"Process emphasizes the hierarchical, explicit command-and-control side of organization—the structure that gets things done. By contrast, practice emphasizes the implicit coordination and exploration that produces thing to do. Practice without process tends to become unmanageable; process without practice results in the loss of creativity needed for sustained innovation†¦Companies that fail to control the conflicting forces of practice and process at best alternate between attempts to foster creativity and attempts to exert control. † As mentioned earlier, the organization must foster creativity, but this aspect of balance is important, and involves the critical thinking, logistical elements and the realism necessary to implement the ideas, but also provide a check and balance arrangement between practice and process. Critical Thinking Creativity Provost and Sproul (1996) incorporate the classic work of W. Edwards Deming in looking at creativity and critical thinking in using them to create improvement in an organization. 21 â€Å"Improvement comes from the application of knowledge†¦profound knowledge [is] the interaction of systems knowledge, knowledge of variation, knowledge of psychology, and knowledge of learning†¦combine with subject matter knowledge to accelerate the rate of improvement†¦. Improvement is desirable and necessary. For such organizations, creative thinking should be viewed as an essential supplement to, though not a replacement for, critical thinking. † Improvement methods may be based on either creative or critical thinking. â€Å"Creativity is the serious, deliberate, and systematic generation of new ideas, new concepts, and new perceptions of value. Creativity means escaping from existing perceptions and concepts to open up new ways of looking at and going things. It has to do with reconceptualizing systems and ideas as well as creating new ones from scratch. Tools based on critical thinking†¦depend on careful analysis, evaluation, and reasoning including both deductive and inductive reasoning and both analytical and systems thinking. Some of the tools provide ways to summarize and communicate existing knowledge; others focus on the collection, analysis and display of new data. They are useful in understanding existing knowledge, gaining additional knowledge and developing and testing changes. † Part of the process is designed to break away from assumptions by identifying them and challenging them. These are two common themes in critical and creative thinking. Gillian Ragsdell (2001) writes about â€Å"critical creativity† using a process of critical systems thinking. â€Å"Being critical involves encouraging complemetarism, sociological awareness, human well-being and emancipation†¦. complementarism could be seen in an appreciation that creativity can arise from a number of different origins—from conflict or from natural personal qualities. † There are a few key principles in critical creativity. First, the systemic principle, looking at the coherent whole, then the principle of participation, where multiple views are taken into account. Finally, there is the principle of reflection, where information is pondered. â€Å"Critical creativity attempts to further the emancipation of individuals through design, debate and disemprisionment. [It] encourages participants to design freedom into their approach, to Critical Thinking Creativity participate meaningfully in a process of open debate and to address coercive forces that hinder attempts to free themselves of their restrictive relationships†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Some of her concepts parallel Senge’s disciplines from The Fifth Discipline. 2 The University of Massachusetts has a graduate program that specializes in creative and critical thinking. They explain their rationale and define the two as: Critical thinking, creative thinking, and reflective practice are valued, of course, in all fields. In critical thinking we seek to scrutinize the assumptions, reasoning, and evidence brought to bear on an issue-by others and by oneself; such scrutiny is enhanced by placing id eas and practices in tension with alternatives. Key functions of creative thinking include generating alternative ideas, practices, and solutions that are unique and effective, and exploring ways to confront complex, messy, ambiguous problems, make new connections, and see how things could be otherwise. In reflective practice we take risks and experiment in putting ideas into practice, then take stock of the outcomes and revise our approaches accordingly. Critical thinking, creative thinking, and reflective practice are valued, of course, in all fields. In critical thinking we seek to scrutinize the assumptions, reasoning, and evidence brought to bear on an issue-by others and by oneself; such scrutiny is enhanced by placing ideas and practices in tension with alternatives. Key functions of creative thinking include generating alternative ideas, practices, and solutions that are unique and effective, and exploring ways to confront complex, messy, ambiguous problems, make new connections, and see how things could be otherwise. In reflective practice we take risks and experiment in putting ideas into practice, then take stock of the outcomes and revise our approaches accordingly. † (University of Massachusetts 2003) While UMass has a graduate program in critical thinking and creativity, concerns have been raised about the thinking emerging from the universities and the expectations of corporate America. â€Å"We look to entrepreneurs to solve old problems by introducing new products, new processes, and new organizational arrangements, often with some degree of risk. However, the personality type of the entrepreneur does not sit easily within organizations. Many of their characteristic qualities—a high challenging behavior, intrinsically motivated, poor at detail, opportunistic, curious and obsessed—would not only be out of place on a standard list or organizational competencies, but would be viewed negatively. † (Kandola 2002) Sometimes the Critical Thinking Creativity creative mindset marches to the beat of a different drummer, and is not welcomed into the environment that is not predisposed to creativity. 23 Observations about the Research and Conclusions There are certainly some overlaps in the research regarding the process of creative thinking and critical thinking. In both, we must challenge assumptions and prior knowledge. In critical thinking we do this to determine accuracy and validity of the statements, and in creativity to go beyond them, as in Donoghue’s concept of thinking further. (Donoghue 2003) His concepts of thinking further suggests we must take new perceptions of things, and not take them at face value. In creative thinking, the first solution is not always the best solution, though it may be right. In critical thinking, the presented solution may be accepted or rejected. Thinking further also requires us to create new frames of reference, as athletes need to do when the world record of running a mile could be broken again and again. Old thinking prohibits creativity and is accepting of what is presented without a critical examination of it. Both consider the thinking as processes rather than products or outcomes. Both involve the re-examination of existing information. It appears that creativity takes the next step after challenging assumptions and begins creating new ideas. Critical thinking challenges, but draws conclusions, rather than taking the concepts to new dimensions. Creative thinking is designed to create, and critical thinking is designed to analyze. It seems that creative thinking has aspects of critical thinking, and critical thinking has aspects of creativity. 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